Angry, Sad, or Scared? Within-valence Mapping of Emotion Words to Facial and Body Cues in 2 to 4-Year-Old Children

The acquisition of emotion words is critical to children's socio-emotional development. Previous studies report that children acquire emotion words gradually during ages 3-5 and beyond. The majority of this work, however, has used demanding tasks for young children (e.g., asking children to label emotion-related facial configurations) and has predominantly relied on facial configurations. Here we designed a child-friendly, word-comprehension task incorporating both facial configurations and body language. In two preregistered online experiments, we asked two to four-year-olds (N = 96) to connect emotion words-happy, sad, angry, and scared-to either facial configurations (Experiment 1) or combined facial and body cues (Experiment 2). We found relatively early competence in understanding emotion words, especially those of the same-valence. All age groups, including 2-year-olds, successfully linked emotion words to corresponding facial configurations (Experiment 1). Experiment 2 replicated this pattern and further showed that children performed equally well (though not substantially better) when given additional body cues. Parental reports of children's exposure to and use of masks during the COVID-19 pandemic did not correlate with children's performance in either experiment. Even before children can produce emotion words in an adult-like manner, they possess at least a partial understanding of those words and can map them to emotion cues within valence domains. © 2023 University of California Press. All rights reserved.

The Benefits and Limitations of Teaching English for Specific Purposes Online and Face-to-Face: Sport and Health Sciences Students' Perspectives

The restrictions imposed to limit the spread of COVID-19 resulted in the switch from in-person to online teaching, including the teaching of foreign languages in 2020-2022. This study uses the feedback of students who have studied English for Specific Purposes (ESP) in virtual and classroom settings. The aim is to investigate the benefits and limitations of each approach for language acquisition in ESP for sport and health sciences. A questionnaire to ascertain students' experiences was distributed to 60 students in sport and health sciences who studied ESP at the Latvian Academy of Sport Education. It was found that online and face-to-face studies of ESP in sport and health sciences tended to facilitate the acquisition of different language skills. In the questionnaire, students reported consistent progress in the study of vocabulary and reading the texts related to their area of study during both online and face-to-face studies, but less improvement was reported in the areas of grammar and speaking skills. Overall, synchronous online live classes would facilitate the steady and continuous development of all language skills if supplemented by continuous support from the teaching personnel, regular offline meetings or classes, and access to specially designed online resources.

Blended Learning to Support Minority Language Acquisition in Primary School Pupils: Lessons From the -Taking Gaelic Home Study'

Gaelic is a minoritised indigenous language of Scotland, with its traditional heartland in the rural north-west of the country. The education system, and in particular Gaelic Medium Education (GME), has been recognised as an important strand of the language maintenance and support initiatives. The provision of GME has grown significantly since its inception in the early 1980s, it remains on the -periphery' of the education system, with around 0.9% of all primary school pupils enrolled in GME settings. The ongoing language shift from Gaelic to English, a process that has been particularly pronounced in the traditional heartlands of the language, and the resulted decline in the use of Gaelic as the language of the home, the family, and the community, raises the question of how GME can contribute to a sustainable future for Gaelic. This article will discuss the findings of a small-scale mixed method practitioner enquiry study, which incorporated parental questionnaires, classroom observations, class-based language assessments and focus groups, to explore the use of blended learning approaches to enhance the development of language skills. The results of this study, conducted initially to evaluate the impact of the Covid-19 school closures on the linguistic proficiency of children in Primary 1 to Primary 3 enrolled in GME, show that pupils who were actively engaged in online learning activities showed a greater confidence and proficiency in their use of Gaelic compared to their peers who had not used these materials to support their learning, as well as increased involvement of caregivers in these Gaelic homework tasks. These findings allow for a re-imaging of approaches to homework in minority language immersion contexts to support the acquisition and use of the minority language beyond the classroom. © Society for the Provision of Education in Rural Education. All Rights Reserved.

Student satisfaction and perceived learning in an online second language learning environment: A replication of Gray and DiLoreto (2016)

The current study is an approximate replication of Gray and DiLoreto's (2016) study, which proposed a model predicting that course structure, learner interaction and instructor presence would influence students' perceived learning and satisfaction in online learning, with student engagement acting as a mediator between two of the predictors and the outcome variables. Using mixed methods, the current study investigated whether Gray and DiLoreto's model would be able to explain the relationships among the same variables in a computer-assisted language learning environment. A mediation analysis was conducted using survey responses from a sample of 215 college-level students, and qualitative analysis was conducted on the survey responses from a subsample of 50 students. Similar to Gray and DiLoreto's study, positive correlational relationships emerged between the variables. However, the model proposed by Gray and DiLoreto did not fit our data well, leading us to suggest alternative path-analytic models with both student engagement and learner interaction as mediators. These models showed that the role of course organization and instructor presence were pivotal in explaining the variation in students' perceived learning and satisfaction both directly and indirectly via student engagement and learner interaction. Moreover, qualitative analysis of students' responses to open-ended questions suggested that from students' perspectives, course structure was the most salient factor affecting their experiences within online language learning contexts, followed by learner interaction, and then by instructor presence.

The impact of COVID-19 and its terminology learning strategies on EFL learners' vocabulary repertoire.

COVID-19 pandemic is an unprecedented crisis worldwide posing many linguistic challenges including understanding and learning new related terminology. This study explores the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and its terminology learning strategies on EFL learners' vocabulary acquisition, particularly in Jordan. A triangulated approach was employed for collecting data including interviews, tests and a questionnaire distributed to 100 EFL learners at a Jordanian university. The qualitative and quantitative analysis of the data showed a positive influence of the COVID-19 pandemic and its terminology strategies on EFL learners' knowledge of vocabulary. It also revealed that the participants were "medium" users of cognitive, determination, and social strategies and "high" users of metacognitive and memory vocabulary learning strategies for acquiring COVID-19 associated terminology. The analysis of the tests demonstrated that the COVID-19 and its Vocabulary Language Strategies (VLSs) have a significant positive impact on students' vocabulary knowledge size. Thus, it verified the effectiveness of the reported strategies for acquiring COVID-19 terminology. The learners' vocabulary repertoire has been enriched with new COVID-19 related vocabulary such as quarantine, lockdown, incubation, pandemic, contagious, outbreak, epidemic, pathology, infectious, asymptomatic, covidiot, pneumonia, anorexia, etc. The findings highlighted the importance of employing efficient strategies for investing newly emerging contexts to cultivate learners' vocabulary repertoire. This study contributes to the area of language acquisition through extensive illustrations of COVID-19 associated lexicon and the intensified-in use associated vocabulary learning strategies. The study concludes with some pedagogical implications and recommendations for further research.

Parents' Perceptions of Barriers and Facilitators to Their Children's Multilingual Language Development Before and After the COVID-19 Pandemic

Les étudiants multilingues, selon le cadre déficitaire des "apprenants de langue seconde," sont désavantagés par rapport â leurs pairs unilingues. Ce cadre ne reconnaît pas les atouts qui accompagnent le développement de la langue â la maison, appelés la richesse culturelle de la communauté ("Community Cultural Wealth": Yosso 2005). Dans cette étude, nous avons posé la question suivante : qu'est-ce que les parents d'enfants multilingues considerent comme des obstacles et des facilitateurs pour soutenir le développement langagier de leurs enfants avant et pendant le COVID-19 ? Six entrevues semi-structurées ont été menées en ligne avec des parents d'enfants ágés de 3 â 5 ans parlant une langue autre que l'anglais â la maison. Ces entrevues ont été enregistrées, transcrites et analysées â l'aide de la méthode qualitative d'analyse de contenu, en utilisant un codage inductif et déductif pour identifier les themes. Nous avons organisé ces themes selon le modele bioécologique de Bronfenbrenner (1979). Les résultats ont révélé que la plupart des obstacles et des facilitateurs au développement multilingue des enfants se situent au niveau du microsysteme de la famille. Les themes étaient liés aux attitudes et aux connaissances, â la maîtrise de l'anglais, â l'exposition, aux ressources et aux expériences des parents. De plus, nous avons constaté que la COVID-19 avait surtout un impact négatif sur l'enfant, le mlcrosystéme et l'exosysteme. Nous discutons de la maniére dont ces obstacles et ces facilitateurs sont liés â la richesse culturelle communautaire. Dans l'avenir, cette étude pourra contribuer â aborder la façon dont les systémes ont marginalisé les familles au sein de nos communautés et â promouvoir les connaissances et le capital culturel qu'offrent ces familles.Alternate :Multilingual students, according to the deficit framework of "English language learners," are at a disadvantage compared to their monolingual peers. This framework fails to recognize the assets that accompany home language development, referred to as Community Cultural Wealth (Yosso 2005). In this study, we asked what do parents of multilingual children identify as barriers and facilitators to supporting their children's language development before and during COVID-19? Six semi-structured interviews were conducted online with parents of children between 3 and 5 years old who spoke a language other than English at home. These interviews were recorded, transcribed, and analyzed using the qualitative method of directed content analysis, employing both inductive and deductive coding to identify themes. We organized these themes according to Bronfenbrenner's (1979) Bioecological Model. Results revealed most barriers and facilitators to children's multilingual development are at the microsystem level of the family. The themes were related to attitudes and knowledge, English fluency, exposure, resources, and parents' experiences. Additionally, we found that COVID-19 mostly negatively impacted the child, microsystem, and exosystem. We discuss how these barriers and facilitators are related to the different Capitals of Community Cultural Wealth. Moving forward, this study can contribute to addressing how systems have marginalized families within our community and elevate the knowledge and cultural capital these families offer.

Four-Year-Old's Online Versus Face-to-Face Word Learning via eBooks.

Developmental research typically relies on face-to-face testing at laboratories, childcare centers, museums or playgroups. Current social distancing measures have led to a halt in research. Although face-to-face interaction is considered essential for research involving young children, current technology provides viable alternatives. This paper introduces an accessible, replicable and easy to follow method to conduct online developmental research with young children employing a word-learning task as an exemplar, including a detailed workflow and step-by-step guide to using easily accessible programs and platforms. Four-year-old children's (N = 56) performance on a word-learning task delivered online vs. face-to-face is provided as a method validation. Children's performance on the word-learning task was predominantly consistent across delivery modes, with only slight variation in performance between modes. The implications of these similar results across face-to-face and online methods are discussed alongside avenues for further research. Importantly, this paper presents an emerging methodological approach for the online administration of developmental science both within and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic, adding a new tool to current and future developmental scientist's toolkits.

Code-Mixing and Second Language Acquisition on Social Media by Digital Native Indonesian Children

The aims of this study are to (1) explain the forms of mixed-use of L1 to L2 codes in social media posts, (2) explain the factors that cause the use of L1 to L2 mixed codes and (3) describe language mastery. This study uses a qualitative descriptive analysis method. Data in code-mixing was obtained from secondary data, namely written posts with COVID-19 content on social media, Facebook and Twitter. A mixture of L1 and L2 codes in postings on social media includes words and phrases manifested in congruent insertion, change, and lexicalisation forms. The influencing factors are divided into (1) speaker factors, such as showing off, prestige, and language skills, and (2) linguistic factors, such as popular terms, topics, modes, speech partners, time and place/location. With the emergence of various terms related to COVID-19, the mastery of a second language for digital natives, in this case, English, is increasing. Although the use of code-mixing, there are some errors in writing, sentence structure, and cohesion, digital natives can master L2 through code-mixing, including accuracy of word writing, word selection, syntactic structure, cohesion, and coherence in the sentence. © 2023 ACADEMY PUBLICATION.

The Influence of Technology in Educating English Language Learners at-risk or with Disabilities: A Systematic Review

Z razvojem tehnologije in zlasti po izbruhu pandemije covida-19 naraščata količina in kakovost elektronskih naprav za učence, ki se učijo angleščino kot drugi ali tuji jezik. Za lajšanje praks pri poučevanju angleškega jezika za učence s posebnimi potrebami so raziskovalci izvedli sistematičen pregled empiričnih študij, objavljenih v zadnjih dveh desetletjih, glede tehnoloških orodij, ki so na voljo učencem angleščine z učnimi težavami. Ta članek predstavlja postopek izbora gradiv in ugotovitve, ki so nastale na podlagi sistematičnega pregleda 16 recenziranih člankov in enega poglavja v knjigi. Prispevek razkriva pogoste duševne stiske in fizične težave pri učenju angleškega jezika ter tipične vrste tehnoloških orodij, ki se uporabljajo pri pouku ali zunaj njega. Še pomembneje, ta članek razpravlja o vlogah teh tehnoloških orodij pri usvajanju angleškega jezika učencev, zlasti o njihovih učinkih na učne izide in dojemanje orodij pri učencih. Z omejenimi primarnimi viri ta članek poziva k večji pozornosti rabe tehnologije pri učenju angleščine kot drugega/tujega jezika učencev, ki so opredeljeni kot rizični oz. z učnimi težavami, ter navaja nekatere možnosti za prihodnje raziskave in učne prakse.Alternate :With the development of technology, the quantity and quality of electronic devices for students learning English as a second or foreign language (ESL/EFL) are on the rise, especially since the outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic. To facilitate practices in English language education for students with special needs, the researchers conducted a systematic review of the empirical studies of technology tools for ESL/EFL students with learning difficulties published in the previous two decades. This paper presents the study selection process and findings of the review based on 16 peerreviewed journal articles and one book chapter. The paper reveals the frequent mental and physical difficulties of English language learning and the typical technology tools employed in and out of class. More importantly, this paper discusses the roles of these technology tools in students' English language acquisition, specifically their effects on student learning outcomes and the students' perceptions toward them. With limited primary sources, this paper calls for more attention to the use of technology in English language learning of ESL/EFL students identified as at-risk and with learning disabilities and raises some implications for future research and instructional practices.

Code-Mixing and Second Language Acquisition on Social Media by Digital Native Indonesian Children

The purpose of this study is to (1) explain the forms of mixed-use of L1 to L2 codes in social media posts, (2) explain the factors causing the use of mixed L1 to L2 codes and (3) describe the mastery of second language features as a result of using mixed codes. According to Halim (2015), the most frequently used code-mixing is code-mixing by phrases. Behaviourism theory assumes that a person after birth has nothing, so the acquisition of environmental language is significant. [...]it is said that the environment plays an essential role in language acquisition (Purba, 2013). The data analysis technique used is the Miles end Huberman model, which includes data collection, data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing/verification.

The role of hope in language teachers' changing stress, coping, and well-being

Language teaching has been described as a "profession in crisis";a situation likely worsened by the effects of an emergency conversion to online teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic. The present study examines two waves of data (from April and November 2020) on stress, coping, and well-being during those eight months. Results show an increase in teachers' stress associated with health and travel but decreases in stress due to online teaching and the shortage of goods in retail stores. There was a significant reduction in coping behavior as teachers settled into the new normal. Well-being, as measured by PERMA, declined significantly, and there was a significant increase in sadness, loneliness, and anger. However, teachers reported an increasing sense of growth during trauma. Time 2 data included a measure of hope, defined by feelings of agency and available pathways to goal achievement. Rarely has hope been studied among teachers in general or language teachers in particular. Results show significant, positive correlations between hope and various measures of successful coping and teacher well-being, including a sense of growth over time. The study suggests the time frame of the study was especially difficult for teachers, but that hope is associated with more positive outcomes. • During the first 8 months (March and November respectively) of the Covid-19 pandemic teacher stress changed little. • Coping efforts declined and negative emotions increased as online teaching became the new normal. • Well-being declined over time, but there was some evidence of an increasing sense of growth during the traumatic events. • Teachers with higher levels of hope showed greater well-being, suggesting protective effects of agency and pathways thinking. [ FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of System is the property of Pergamon Press - An Imprint of Elsevier Science and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full . (Copyright applies to all s.)

Investigating student agency and affordances during online virtual exchange projects in an ELF context from an ecological CALL perspective

Situated in a computer-assisted language-learning (CALL) context with English as a lingua franca (ELF), this qualitative case study of virtual exchange projects adopts an ecological perspective to investigate student agency in engaging with perceived affordances of the learning environment. Data collected through semi-structured interviews and student reflections were triangulated with instructor observations, researcher memos, and artifacts such as student-produced presentation slides and videos. Results of the study indicated that students engaged with diverse formations of affordances within the multimodal online environment. Particularly, students' agentive behaviors manifested through interactions with teacher and peer support as well as negotiation of collaboration between students of different sociocultural backgrounds. Pedagogical implications are provided for educators considering the implementation of student-centered, constructivist instructional practices via online virtual exchange projects along with theoretical and methodological suggestions for future research. • Intercultural virtual exchange has rich pedagogical potential for developing student agency. • Perceived affordances are context-specific and contingent on interactions between diverse agents. • Multimodal virtual exchange environment fosters students' agentive behaviors engaging integrated affordances. • Student agency in the English as a lingua franca context is activated and enacted during virtual exchange projects. • An ecological approach reveals the co-instantiative nature of linguistic, social, cultural, and digital affordances. [ FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of System is the property of Pergamon Press - An Imprint of Elsevier Science and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full . (Copyright applies to all s.)

CACTI: Use of a survey instrument as a semistructured interview protocol to facilitate teacher retrospection on bi/multilingual practices in EMI

In this study, the researchers used a survey as a semistructured interview protocol to examine teachers' use of students' other languages in English-medium instruction (EMI) by conducting interviews with 16 primary and secondary teachers in EMI schools in Hong Kong, Guangdong, Fujian, and Zhejiang. During the two parts of the interview (Part 1: Demographic Information and Part 2: Bi/multilingual Practices), which lasted 1.5–2 h, teachers shared their pedagogical practices based on one class of primary or secondary students. Part 1 elicited teachers' geographic and institutional context, grade and subject matter, class language demographics, and teacher language knowledge, while Part 2 consisted of 30 multiple choice items representing different bi/multilingual classroom practices, categorized based on the literature into learning purposes, pedagogical or spontaneous practices, classroom language policies, and modality directions. Teachers rated the importance of each of the 30 practices on a Likert scale ("5/Very important" to "1/Not important") and gave justifications and explanations that were coded inductively. Table and interview analyses show (1) which practices stood out as the most controversial, (2) what deliberations about contextual factors were involved in decision-making about them, and (3) implications for teacher professional development. [ FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of System is the property of Pergamon Press - An Imprint of Elsevier Science and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full . (Copyright applies to all s.)

Analysis of EFL Learners’ Language Proficiency Development Across Different Social Media Platforms

The shift of educational activities to the online environment due to the outbreak of Covid-19 has generated contentions regarding the effectiveness of social media in developing language proficiency. Also, determining appropriate social media platforms becomes essential. This study, therefore, aims to examine the differences in EFL learners’ development of different language skills across various social media platforms. The study adopted an online descriptive survey in which a self-develop questionnaire was used as a data-collection tool. The respondents comprise a randomly selected sample of 80 students from the first and second levels of the English undergraduate program at a Jordanian university. The data were analyzed using a non-parametric method consisting of Chi-square test and frequency statistics. According to the findings, EFL learners tend to develop reading skills, vocabulary, and pronunciation through Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube respectively. Additionally, significant differences exist in language proficiency development across social media platforms. This study is expected to provide useful information to educators in choosing the most appropriate platforms to supplement their instructional efforts based on learners’ needs. © 2022 ACADEMY PUBLICATION.

Učenci s priseljenskim ozadjem pri pouku na daljavo v drugem valu epidemije bolezni Covid-19 v Sloveniji

V prispevku predstavljamo rezultate raziskave o učinkovitih prilagoditvah pouka na daljavo za učence s priseljenskim ozadjem v drugem valu epidemije v Sloveniji. Odgovori majhnih vzorcev učiteljev (N = 29) na spletno anketo nakazujejo upad težav z opremo IKT v primerjavi s prvim valom, medtem ko so se še vedno prisotne težave, povezane z učenjem in učnim jezikom ter posledicami socialne izolacije. Učitelji so individualizirali način poučevanja in učne pomoči glede na zaznane jezikovne in učne težave ter osebne stiske. Raznojezični pristopi so se izkazali za učinkovite pri zagotavljanju inkluzivnega poučevanja v večkulturnih okoljih in bi jih veljalo krepiti tudi pri pouku v šoli.Alternate :The paper presents a study on the effective adaptation of distance learning for students with an immigrant background in the second wave of the COVID-19 epidemic in Slovenia. The online survey of a small sample of teachers indicates a decline in ICT equipment-related problems compared to the first wave, while learning and language problems and the social isolation effects persisted. Teachers adapted the teaching approaches and learning assistance individually to the perceived language and learning problems and personal distress of students. Plurilingual approaches prove to be effective in enabling an inclusive multicultural learning environment and should be strengthened also in the school classes.

Critical applied linguistics: A critical (re-)introduction. 2nd edn. Abingdon: Routledge, 2021. Pp. 220. Pb. £28

[...]Pennycook states that the purpose of the volume is not only to provide a comprehensive and collaborative overview of the ideological forces that shape CAL, but to advocate for changes to applied linguistics, namely, decolonization and the incorporation of ideas from the Global South. Pennycook takes the field of second language acquisition to task for viewing language as a cognitive phenomenon and removing it from its social context by ignoring factors of identity such as gender, class, and race, and in the end argues that language must be considered as embodied. [...]the seventh chapter briefly explores ways in which critical applied linguistics can be incorporated into education, research, and activism, especially via a means of critical pedagogy. [...]the ideal audience for this book is the linguist, language researcher, or instructor that has a curiosity or appetite for criticality, a keen interest in society and power, and a desire to change the status quo in the world of applied linguistics, as well as society.

Online Education and English Language Learning Among Tribal Students of Kerala

Kerala, a South Indian state has tribal population in all her districts. About 1.5% of the total population of the state constitute tribal population. They depend upon natural environment and resources for their survival. Children from the same community usually depend on government funded schools for their education. Education for this deprived section during COVID 19 Pandemic was a massive exclusion and an uphill task. Digital divide and medium of communication (Standard Malayalam) were some of the critical concerns to knowledge acquisition among tribal children. This paper primarily focuses on the challenges of online education among tribal students with a clear emphasis on the English language acquisition. This study was conducted in four most tribal populated districts of the State, namely, Wayanad, Malappuram, Palakkad, and Idukki. This is a qualitative explorative study that explores the experiences of the tribal students' English language learning challenges from the teachers' perspective in these districts. © The Electrochemical Society

Investigating the Effect of Using Game-Based Learning on EFL Learners’ Motivation and Anxiety

This study intended to examine the effects of game-based learning on Iranian EFL learners’ language anxiety and motivation. In order to perform the study, the quantitative research method was applied. In this study, 58 Iranian intermediate EFL participants were selected and divided into two groups: control and experimental. Then, the questionnaires of the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) and Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) were administered to the participants of both groups as the pretests of the study. After pretesting, 90 English vocabulary items were trained to the EG by using game-based learning, but the same vocabulary items were taught to the CG traditionally. After teaching the vocabularies, the mentioned questionnaires were administered again as the post-tests of the study. The results of independent samples t-tests revealed that implementing game-based learning had the potential of reducing EFL learners’ anxiety to improve their English learning. Also, the results indicated that applying game-based learning increased the language motivation of Iranian EFL learners.

On Effective Utilization of Computer-Mediated Communication Technology in Network-Based Foreign Language Teaching

The integration of computer-mediated communication and language teaching has been a common practice in the higher institutes internationally. The effective application of computer-mediated communication (CMC) in network-based foreign language teaching depends on the optimal balance between the use of teaching methods, teaching sources, and teaching means in a specific learning environment. Based on the current literature research on CMC, this paper mainly introduces the CMC in foreign language learning from its time characteristics, compares the language generation under synchronous and asynchronous CMC, and discusses and analyzes the setting of teaching tasks and the application of CMC in teaching practice, as well as the possible technical availability problems.

The third wind of language learning strategies research

The researchers noted that whereas most language learning strategies research has accounted for strategies used separately or as part of latent factors, their study participants were found to almost always use strategies in sequences, pairs, and clusters. By analyzing these strategy combinations and their moment-to-moment functions, Cohen and Wang identified six patterns: (1) linear progression in functions (e.g., from metacognitive to cognitive);(2) simultaneous occurrence of functions (e.g., social and affective);(3) linear progression in functions + simultaneous occurrence of functions;(4) bi-directional fluctuation of functions (e.g., back and forth between metacognitive and cognitive);(5) bi-directional fluctuation + simultaneous occurrence of functions;and (6) simultaneous occurrence of functions + micro-fluctuations of functions (see Cohen & Wang, 2018). [...]Gao and Hu drew on an adapted activity system model based on earlier work by Engeström, who expanded on Vygotsky's idea of mediation (see Gao & Hu, 2020). The system has three mediating resources: community (e.g., a social group performing similar actions with similar goals), rules (e.g., time and academic requirements), and division of labor (e.g., roles and power relationships with the community).